Religion in China
Throughout Chinese history there have been four key religious, or philosophical groups: Confucianism, Daosim, Legalism, and Buddhism. Of these, Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism were all founded in Ancient China at some point during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) and helped to shape the way Chinese society develop. Working as highly philosophical concepts, these three religions heavily influenced the laws, and everyday lives of the Ancient Chinese, including the manner in which they interacted with each other, and is still apparent today.
Unlike Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism, Buddhism was not founded in China, but instead was introduced by Indian missionaries travelling along the silk road during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 202 CE). Although it had little impact on Ancient China and the way it developed, it is important to acknowledge its importance to modern day China, as it is the number one most practiced religion in China. It is also of interest to note that the similarities between the Chinese interpretation of Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, and other Chinese philosophies, and understand why it is that China, with an already established religious and philosophical system, was so willing to adopt a new way of thinking. For instance: each of these religions (with perhaps the exception of legalism) encourages a balanced knowledge of opposite ideas, encouraging self-cultivation and mindfulness of surroundings, both material and natural, in order to live ones life in accordance to the great natural way, or 'dao'. |
A short video discussing the development of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, and some of the key influences they have had on China
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Confucianism
Founded by Confucius (born Kung Chiu) sometime between 551 and 479 BCE, Confucianism is concerned primarily with promoting political ideas and social harmony by focusing on self-cultivation, reflection, and respect. Confucianism is a philosophy that defines proper conduct for people and governments. According to Confucianism, people are naturally good and should concentrate on improving their behavior and doing what they know is right. This proper behavior is known as li. According to Confucianism, if everyone followed li, society would be ordered and peaceful.
An important part of Confucian philosophy was built on the concept of the Five Key Relationships:
While the Five Key Relationships of Confucianism helped in establishing a strong empire based on social harmony, Confucianism also focused strongly on self-improvement, and valued both intellect and virtue in pursuit of 'the worthy man'. In this manner Confucius saw education as a form of continual self-improvement, arguing that its primary function was for the training of the noble class, because, at its core, Confucianism was a feudal philosophy that sought a return to tradition and structure. While Confucianism did place emphasis on educating the upper classes, it was only because it was believed that everyone must assume their rightful place in society according to their own ability, and nobility was to be earned, and not inherited. It is because of this focus on assessing ability that Confucianism is also credited with establishing the one of the first examination systems, allowing citizens from all social classes to participate in an Imperial Exam where they would be recognised for their personal merit, skill, and intellect, and not who their parents were.
Few rulers during Confucius's lifetime were willing to accept his ideas. Seeing the power of the Zhou rulers collapse, they were not ready to return to a life of tradition and servitude under the King, seeking instead to forge their own kingdoms through what was to be several centuries of war. The height of anti-Confucianism came about during the Qin Dynasty, when Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, resenting the way in which scholars compared his rule to those of the previous emperors, had all historical texts, including The Analects, burned. As an additional insult to Confucianism and the scholarly doctrine it promoted, Qin Shi Huangdi, a Legalist, had scholars, many of whom were Confucians, buried alive in a mass grave. It was not until the Han Dynasty that Confucianism reached any widespread recognition, as Han Wudi, the sixth Han Emperor, made Confucianism the official religion of China.
An important part of Confucian philosophy was built on the concept of the Five Key Relationships:
- The relationship between ruler and subject
- The relationship between a parent and their child
- The relationship between a husband and his wife
- The relationship between older and younger siblings (boys and girls)
- The relationship between two friends.
While the Five Key Relationships of Confucianism helped in establishing a strong empire based on social harmony, Confucianism also focused strongly on self-improvement, and valued both intellect and virtue in pursuit of 'the worthy man'. In this manner Confucius saw education as a form of continual self-improvement, arguing that its primary function was for the training of the noble class, because, at its core, Confucianism was a feudal philosophy that sought a return to tradition and structure. While Confucianism did place emphasis on educating the upper classes, it was only because it was believed that everyone must assume their rightful place in society according to their own ability, and nobility was to be earned, and not inherited. It is because of this focus on assessing ability that Confucianism is also credited with establishing the one of the first examination systems, allowing citizens from all social classes to participate in an Imperial Exam where they would be recognised for their personal merit, skill, and intellect, and not who their parents were.
Few rulers during Confucius's lifetime were willing to accept his ideas. Seeing the power of the Zhou rulers collapse, they were not ready to return to a life of tradition and servitude under the King, seeking instead to forge their own kingdoms through what was to be several centuries of war. The height of anti-Confucianism came about during the Qin Dynasty, when Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, resenting the way in which scholars compared his rule to those of the previous emperors, had all historical texts, including The Analects, burned. As an additional insult to Confucianism and the scholarly doctrine it promoted, Qin Shi Huangdi, a Legalist, had scholars, many of whom were Confucians, buried alive in a mass grave. It was not until the Han Dynasty that Confucianism reached any widespread recognition, as Han Wudi, the sixth Han Emperor, made Confucianism the official religion of China.
Taoism
'Nature does not hurry, yet everything is accomplished' - Laozi, Tao te Ching
Much Like Confucianism, Taoism was formed out of opposition to the civil wars that make up so much of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Founded in the Spring and Autumn Period, Taoism (or Daoism) was founded by Laozi around the concept of 'Dao', or 'the way', a philosophical idea that is applied to both Taoism and Confucianism,. Contrary to Confucian thinking, which promoted active self-improvement, Taoists believed that seeking power and wealth was unnatural, and saw happiness, not intelligence and social harmony as the ultimate goal.
Taoists also promoted the concept of 'action (and ruling) through non-action,' an idea based on the understanding that nature could not be bent to one's will, but instead what would happen, would happen, teaching that 'just as a farmer cannot force a plant to grow, a ruler cannot force the people to prosper'. In this manner Taoism taught that people could achieve happiness by connecting with, and becoming one with nature, living in balance, and harmony. Taoists were taught to model their own lives after nature, noting that nature is accepting of what comes its way, a blade of grass does not strive for fame, knowledge, or power, but instead bends in the breeze. This 'harmonious acceptance' can be observed in the bamboo stick, which bends in the wind and does not break: It overcomes the wind by yielding to it. Had the bamboo stayed strong and stiff, it surely would have snapped. In this way weakness produces strength, and strength produces weakness.
A continuation of this idea was the Taoist concept of 'balance', encapsulated in Taoist symbol: Yin Yang (seen right), 'balance' was the belief that it was impossible to have good things in the world, without the bad. For Taoists good and bad were not opposite ends of a single line, but a cycle that mimicked their observations of nature; just as the Sun replaces the Moon, or Summer flows onto Autumn, Winter, and Spring, similarly, your own being will mature, and eventually decay, returning back to the Dao. As long as you are true to yourself, and you show compassion and honor for life, and remain patient in all aspects, Taoists believed that happiness could be achieved.
Taoists were also extremely interested in the idea of immortality, and frequently consumed a variety of foods and potions in their quest. While immortality remained beyond the Taoist alchemists, they did make many interesting, and useful discoveries that are still used in Eastern, and Western medicine today, and is often considered the founding of traditional Chinese medicine.
Much Like Confucianism, Taoism was formed out of opposition to the civil wars that make up so much of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Founded in the Spring and Autumn Period, Taoism (or Daoism) was founded by Laozi around the concept of 'Dao', or 'the way', a philosophical idea that is applied to both Taoism and Confucianism,. Contrary to Confucian thinking, which promoted active self-improvement, Taoists believed that seeking power and wealth was unnatural, and saw happiness, not intelligence and social harmony as the ultimate goal.
Taoists also promoted the concept of 'action (and ruling) through non-action,' an idea based on the understanding that nature could not be bent to one's will, but instead what would happen, would happen, teaching that 'just as a farmer cannot force a plant to grow, a ruler cannot force the people to prosper'. In this manner Taoism taught that people could achieve happiness by connecting with, and becoming one with nature, living in balance, and harmony. Taoists were taught to model their own lives after nature, noting that nature is accepting of what comes its way, a blade of grass does not strive for fame, knowledge, or power, but instead bends in the breeze. This 'harmonious acceptance' can be observed in the bamboo stick, which bends in the wind and does not break: It overcomes the wind by yielding to it. Had the bamboo stayed strong and stiff, it surely would have snapped. In this way weakness produces strength, and strength produces weakness.
A continuation of this idea was the Taoist concept of 'balance', encapsulated in Taoist symbol: Yin Yang (seen right), 'balance' was the belief that it was impossible to have good things in the world, without the bad. For Taoists good and bad were not opposite ends of a single line, but a cycle that mimicked their observations of nature; just as the Sun replaces the Moon, or Summer flows onto Autumn, Winter, and Spring, similarly, your own being will mature, and eventually decay, returning back to the Dao. As long as you are true to yourself, and you show compassion and honor for life, and remain patient in all aspects, Taoists believed that happiness could be achieved.
Taoists were also extremely interested in the idea of immortality, and frequently consumed a variety of foods and potions in their quest. While immortality remained beyond the Taoist alchemists, they did make many interesting, and useful discoveries that are still used in Eastern, and Western medicine today, and is often considered the founding of traditional Chinese medicine.
Legalism
Founded by Han Fei during the Waring States Period, Legalism was created in direct opposition to the growing Confucian, and Taoist movements of the Spring & Autumn Period. Unlike Confucianism and Taoism, which both promoted harmony, Legalism was centered around the idea of strict control and regulation through a rigorously enforced hierarchy, and did not seek to answer the 'questions of life'. Legalism also believed that acting in a harmonious and proper way was not enough to create a peaceful and stable society, and instead sought to establish strict laws and harsh punishments as a means of control.
At the core of Legalism also lay the belief that all people were inherently evil and selfish, and that the lack of regulation throughout China's history is what led to the division of the Warring States Period. The Legalism text, Han Feizi (Basic Writings) was therefore less concerned with how the everyday citizen behaved, and focused more on the proper conduct and behavior of a ruler, and how they should run China. Legalists believed that an effective ruler should never demonstrate or give in to feelings of affection or charity. Above all however, a Legalist ruler should trust no-one, including their own families, because 'he who trusts others will be controlled by others.'
During the Qin Dynasty, Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, seeking to re-establish loyalty to the government, introduced Legalism across China, breaking up the family loyalty that had been strengthened by the teachings of Confucius. While this helped unify China, and created a well-organised society at first, the harsh punishments handed out eventually led to growing dissent, and outright rebellion. Some of the stricter laws enforced during this time included forbidding people from criticising the government, the punishment for which ranged from being burnt or boiled alive, to having ones hands cut off.
At the core of Legalism also lay the belief that all people were inherently evil and selfish, and that the lack of regulation throughout China's history is what led to the division of the Warring States Period. The Legalism text, Han Feizi (Basic Writings) was therefore less concerned with how the everyday citizen behaved, and focused more on the proper conduct and behavior of a ruler, and how they should run China. Legalists believed that an effective ruler should never demonstrate or give in to feelings of affection or charity. Above all however, a Legalist ruler should trust no-one, including their own families, because 'he who trusts others will be controlled by others.'
During the Qin Dynasty, Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, seeking to re-establish loyalty to the government, introduced Legalism across China, breaking up the family loyalty that had been strengthened by the teachings of Confucius. While this helped unify China, and created a well-organised society at first, the harsh punishments handed out eventually led to growing dissent, and outright rebellion. Some of the stricter laws enforced during this time included forbidding people from criticising the government, the punishment for which ranged from being burnt or boiled alive, to having ones hands cut off.